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Title: Scale-effect in the shear strength of fresh fractures in Kuru granite

Author: Arttu Anttilainen

Supervisor: Prof. Mikael Rinne

Advisors: DSc. Lauri Uotinen, DSc. Masoud Torkan

Funding: 

Abstract: 

Author: Enni-Maria Peltola

Supervisor: Prof. Sanandam Bordoloi

Advisors: Prof. Leena Korkiala-Tanttu, DSc. Mohamad Hanafi

Author: Sampsa Kotamäki

Title of thesis: The Use of Rejuvenators in Hot-In-Place Recycling (HIR)

Thesis supervisor: D.Sc.Tech. Nina Raitanen

Thesis advisor(s):  M.Sc.Tech. Tommi Valjakka

Abstract

This master’s thesis focuses on the use of rejuvenators in asphalt resurfacing within the REM method. The aim of the study was to evaluate the suitability and effects of alternative rejuvenators and compare them to B650/900, which is currently used as a rejuvenator. The work included a literature review, laboratory research, and method testing at a test site during an actual REM operation.

The results indicate that the use of rejuvenators can improve the properties of aged asphalt and enable a broader application of the REM method. The selection of the optimal rejuvenator and its dosage is crucial for achieving a successful end product.

Based on the research and findings, the use of rejuvenators is a more effective way to reduce the stiffening of bitumen caused by aging, thereby expanding the application possibilities of the REM method. Method testing at a real site confirmed the laboratory research findings and highlighted practical application challenges, such as the accuracy of rejuvenator dosing and inadequate compaction with one of the tested rejuvenators.

The conclusions of this master’s thesis support further research on the use of rejuvenators, particularly regarding their long-term effects and behavior un-der different conditions.

Author: Udesh Kahanda Bulathge

Supervisor: Prof. Sanandam Bordoloi

Advisors:  Soumya Roy (MSc), Yuxuan Sun (MSc)

Financing: Aalto Foundation, which is funded by AFRY Finland OY and Sotkamo Silver OY

Abstract:

Author: Nelli Huttunen

Supervisor: Professor of practice Topias Siren

Advisor:  MSc. Juhani Penttilä

Author: Istiak Nur

Thesis supervisor: Prof. Sanandam Bordoloi

Thesis advisor(s):  Fahim Al-Neshawy (PhD)and Anoosheh Iravanian  (PhD)

Author: Iiro Hartikainen

Supervisor: Jussi Leveinen

Advisor: Jussi Leveinen

Financing: Foundation for Aalto University Science and Technology

Abstract: 

Rock aggregate availability near growing cities is important for reducing

costs and environmental effects of construction. New quarries are needed to

maintain supply of aggregate material and to minimize transporting dis-

tances of aggregates.

This study focused on properties of aggregates and explored different uses

of aggregates and their requirements. Empirical part of the work consisted

of aggregate study in the area of Kolabacken. The area was first explored

through desk study, which helped us to choose locations for sampling. Rock

samples were extracted, crushed and the aggregate was sieved for mechani-

cal tests. Mechanical tests were performed to find out if the aggregate was

suitable for demanding use such as railway ballast or asphalt pavement.

The mechanical tests performed were Los Angeles Abrasion test and Nordic

Abrasion test. The first one measures resistance to fragmentation and the

other one resistance to wear. Both properties are used commonly in aggre-

gate quality requirements. The test results indicated quite durable rock, but

values were not sufficient for highest requirement classes of asphalt pave-

ment or railway ballast.

Author: Janne Suominen
Supervisor: Mikael Rinne
Advisor: Mateusz Janiszewski
Funding: 4 months working part time as research assistant

Abstract:

Accurate rock mass characterization is essential for safe design of underground structures. While traditionally done through field mapping, advances in photogrammetry now allow remote, high-resolution mapping of rock faces. This thesis explores ways to improve the accuracy of photogrammetric models by experimenting with different scaling object configurations. A virtual tunnel tour is also developed for educational use, and digital Q-system characterization is compared to traditional field mapping.

This study evaluates how the distribution, orientation and amount of alignment distances influence the accuracy, specifically root mean square error (RMSE) of defined control distances in the photogrammetric model. Furthermore, this study compares physical and digital mapping methods from a student perspective, evaluating confidence, perceived usability, and preferences using quantitative and qualitative surveys.

This study found that scaling object layout affects model accuracy, while alignment orientation had inconsistent effects and changing the amount of alignment distances per object had little impact. Comparing physical and digital Q-mapping, confidence levels were lower in digital method, especially for parameters like joint roughness, alteration, and water reduction. Despite the lower confidence levels, digital mapping was preferred overall.

Author: Mert Aydogmus

Supervisor: Professor Mikael Rinne

Advisor(s)/Co-supervisors: Prof. Nikolaus A. Sifferlinger, Prof. Bernd Lottermoser

Funding:- 

Abstract:

Financial analysis of earnings and expenditures in mining operations is crucial for the economic evaluation of various commodities, including non-metallic and industrial minerals. The costs associated with mining activities significantly influence the profitability and competitiveness of a company within the same sector. This research aims to identify potential optimisation strategies by conducting a comparative mining cost analysis of a company's European silica sand operations. 

Cost accounting was carried out across thirteen mining sites to categorise expenditures based on their relevance to mining implementation. Cost allocation was performed to determine unit mining costs and operational performance metrics, evaluated on a yearly basis for 2023 and 2024. Three operations were identified as cost outliers in both years. Based on the economies of scale hypothesis, a simple linear regression (SLR) model was applied to investigate the relationship between unit cost and production volume. The statistically significant relationship (p < 0.01) indicated that a 1% increase in production corresponds to a 0.25% decrease in unit cost. Subsequently, a multiple linear regression (MLR) model was employed for enhanced predictive capability. The model demonstrated strong statistical significance (p < 0.0001) across multiple variables for predicting mining costs, with four operations exhibiting higher costs than expected from the regression trend. To assess internal efficiency, data envelopment analysis (DEA) was applied using mining cost as the input and profitability, productivity, and production achievement as outputs. The resulting efficiency scores identified three operations as efficiency frontiers, while another three were found to be inefficient for 2023 and 2024. The results were further compared with technical reports from industrial peers producing silica sand. This benchmarking revealed that cost estimates at three of the company’s operations were higher than those reported by several Australian and an Indian silica sand mining projects.

Based on the findings, four operations were prioritised for optimisation. Strategic optimisation plans include reducing energy consumption, optimising mine planning and pit design, evaluating automation potential, and improving fleet management. In conclusion, this research demonstrates the feasibility of identifying optimisation opportunities through comparative cost analysis.

Author: Nina Mattsson

Title of the thesis:  Development of the Process in Inframodelling through Algorithm-Assisted Design

Supervisor: Prof. Nina Raitanen

Advisor(s): DI Pieta Haukka (A-INS)

Funding: -

Abstract:

Modern infrastructure projects are based on model-based design, where infrastructures are designed and implemented using information modelling. Algorithm-assisted design has become a common method in the field in recent years, where design is based on predefined algorithms or scripts. Algorithm-assisted design enables the automation of the design process by automating regularly recurring structures, thereby enhancing and speeding up the design process. The use of algorithm-assisted design in inframodelling, especially in the creation of planning models, has been studied very little or not at all, so the purpose of this thesis was to study the possibilities of algorithm-assisted design and the use of related software in inframodelling without compromising quality assurance.

The research methods used were literature review, interviews, and case study. The literature review was divided into two parts: the first part covered inframodelling and the associated design model and planning model, as well as the transition process between them, while the second part studied algorithm-assisted design and the selected software in theory. The literature review was utilized in the formulation of interview questions and the compilation of the case study. The interviews aimed to identify potential challenges and limitations of creating planning models and algorithm-assisted design, as well as the suitability of inframodelling for algorithm-assisted design. The goal of the case study was to study how algorithm-assisted design can be utilized in different phases of the planning model process.

The interview study showed that algorithm-assisted design does not cause risks from a quality assurance perspective when models are carefully verified. Trimble Novapoint and Autodesk Civil 3D are promising options for future infrastructure modelling software. In the case study, planning model process charts were created, illustrating the phases of both algorithm-assisted and manual execution. These charts can be utilized in the future to develop various road and street project planning processes. Algorithm-assisted design still requires development, especially in road, street, and roadway design, but by combining algorithm-assisted and manual modelling, the efficiency and accuracy of the process can be improved. Future development should focus on developing algorithms suitable for inframodelling and training personnel.

Author: Bhupendra Basnet 

Supervisor: Prof. Wojchiech Solowski 

Advisor(s): Dr Jouko Lehtonen and  MSc Antti Perälä

Abstract: 

The increasing demand for renewable energy has led to a growing adoption of solar panels as a sustainable power generation solution. However, in soft soil areas, designing and installing foundation systems for solar panels can be challenging due to the low bearing capacity and settlement problems. This master's thesis presents a comprehensive study on the design of various steel profiles as pile foundations for solar panels in soft soil areas, with a focus on addressing the geotechnical challenges associated with such soil conditions, particularly in Nordic countries such as Finland. The research presents the different solutions as steel pile foundation under soft soil. In addition, the study will analyze and present the spans for the superstructure under various loads. 
The research of this thesis begins with an in-depth review of the existing literature on steel pile foundations and soft soil geotechnical behaviour. The research will review existing literature on the analysis of solar footing in various loading conditions, such as wind, snow, and dead loads, and their effects. In this study, we analyze the different load requirements for solar panel footings to better understand their impact on the structural stability. The research presents the results of various foundation methods, including pile foundations that utilize different numbers of piles for different load conditions. It reviews several design methods and guide­lines for steel pile foundations in soft soil and evaluates their relevance and applicability to foundations for solar panels. 
The report presents spans for superstructure resulting from varying load (i.e., uplifting forces due to wind load) acting in soft soil foundation steel profile and checking of design criteria regarding Eurocode. Similarly, the connection detail between the pile Solar frame is checked according to Eurocode, and the Solar frame is checked according to Eurocode, and the Stand­ard detail of connection is presented. The design framework aims to determine the optimal solution by providing guidelines on pile type, pile spacing, pile embedment depth, and estima­tion of pile capacity. The proposed design framework aims to improve the reliability and sus­tainability of solar panel foundation systems in soft soil areas, facilitating the widespread adoption of renewable energy sources in such geotechnically challenging environments. 

Author:  Samuli Kiuru

Supervisor: professor Wojciech Solowski

Advisor:  DI Jyrki Pihlajamäki, KFS Finland Oy

Financing: ��ä���ä�����������ٴ�

Abstract:

Author: Matilda Lille

Supervisor: Professor Mikael Rinne

Advisor: MSc. Kalle Hollmén

Abstract

The construction of rock tunnels generates carbon dioxide emissions due to explosives, machinery, and materials used in rock reinforcement.  This study examined different possibilities to reduce the carbon footprint of reinforcement structures in rock tunnel projects. The focus was particularly on comparing different design methods for reinforcement structures in terms of their carbon footprint. Material choices and their impact on the carbon footprint was investigated in a litterature review. The thesis also contains a case study, which compares the carbon dioxide emissions and costs of tunnel reinforcement structures designed using three different design methods. The first design method used was the Q-system, which is the most common way to design rock reinforcement in tunnels in Finland currently. Additionally, Unwedge, which is a software based on key block theory, was used to calculate the reinforcement need for the tunnel.  The calculations were performed both deterministically and probabilistically. Results indicated that the Q-method leads to over-reinforcement, especially regarding shotcrete. The study suggests that more accurate calculations and design efforts can reduce both the carbon footprint and costs of a tunnel project.

Author: Sandaru Liyanarathna Vidanage

Supervisor: Professor Mikael Rinne 

Advisors: Dr Masoud Torkan and Dr Lauri Uotinen 

Funding: National Nuclear Safety and Waste Management Research Programme SAFER2028, MIRKA project

Abstract:

Author: Eden Telila

Supervisor: Prof. Wojciech Solowski

Advisor(s)/Co-supervisors: Matias Napari, MSc and Lasse Kudsk, MSc (Ramboll)

Funding: Ramboll Finland Oy

Abstract:

In Finland, geotechnical designers often use Novapoint in Civil 3D to access ground investigation database. They retrieve field vane test (Siipileikkauskoe) results to manually calculate reduced undrained shear strength. This process is time-consuming, prone to error, and hard to manage when working with large datasets or multiple cross-sections. Also, the absence of visualisation of the reduced undrained shear strength on the soundings makes clay layer definition difficult. In addition, the effect of the stress state is often overlooked in designs.

This thesis addresses these challenges by developing a tool named “Su from FVT”. The tool extracts data, handles missing values, and supports three different reduction methods. It also provides visualization of Su across stress states. The tool applies interpolation or empirical correlations derived from Finnish soil databases. The fineness number from the correlation model tends to be higher, which can over-estimate strength if not carefully reviewed.

The study adopts a design science research approach to design, develop and evaluate the tool with a case study to illustrate its performance in terms of time, precision, and reproducibility. On average, it takes 30 seconds for the tool to process a typical task, using about 60 MB of memory. The case study showed a 60% reduction in calculation time for the studied cross-section. It also emphasized the importance of observing soil strength across stress states to support designers make project-specific choices. Relying only on field vane test-based undrained shear strength for all types of designs could lead to under or over estimation of soil strength.

Overall, the tool helps to quickly estimate and assess undrained shear strength from field vane test. However, its reliability depends on the quality of the correlation models and the completeness of the input data. Hence, designers must always review the outputs against local conditions.

Author: Anna Grönroos

Supervisor: Jussi Leveinen, Aalto-yliopisto

Advisor(s): Iiro Lindgren, Ramboll Finland Oy

Funding: Aalto-yliopisto and Ramboll Finland Oy  

Abstract:

The objective of this master’s thesis was to examine the requirements and guidelines for Building Information Modeling (BIM) in building geotechnical design with a particular focus on model scope, level of detail, and content. The guidelines of five different entities were compared to each other and to Talogeotekniikan tietomalliohje (YTV 2021 part 15). The entities included the cities of Helsinki, Vantaa, and Espoo, as well as two different construction companies.  Furthermore, the research explored the impacts of the new Building Act and the forthcoming decree from the Ministry of the Environment on the modeling of building geotechnics.  Special attention was given to the modeling of excavations and drainage systems. Additionally, the potential of parametric modeling in the design of excavations and drainage systems was investigated.

The research was conducted using a mixed-method approach. A literature review and analysis established the theoretical framework for guideline comparison, while data gathered from an online survey and semi-structured thematic interviews provided insights into the perspectives of industry practitioners. To practically explore parametric modeling, two parametric modeling tools were developed using Rhinoceros 3D software and its Grasshopper plugin.

It was observed that the implementation of Talogeotekniikan tietomalliohje has been minimal. The requirements in the entities' own guidelines were found to be either more stringent or more limited compared to Talogeotekniikan tietomalliohje. Differences were also noted between municipalities and companies, stemming from their respective operational contexts and objectives. While Talogeotekniikan tietomalliohje has the potential to standardize geotechnical modeling practices, its current application is not widespread. The BIM-based building permit process is anticipated to significantly enhance the modeling of building geotechnics. According to the interviews and internet survey, 3D models were determined to support visualization, coordination, and mass calculations, although they do not yet fully replace 2D plans. Parametric modeling emerged as a promising solution for the evolving design needs of excavations and drainage systems.

Author: Siiri Kutvonen

Supervisor: Prof. Jussi Leveinen

Advisors: DI Ilona Häkkinen, DI Samuli Tikkanen 

Funding: A-Insinöörit Suunnittelu Oy

Abstract:

Author: Salome Kallio

Supervisor: Professor of Practice Topias Siren

Advisor(s): MSc. Tech Antti Matikainen

Abstract:

The objective of this Master’s Thesis was to determine the most effective methods for managing earthworks mass balance in civil engineering and infrastructure projects from the contractor’s perspective. A further objective was to evaluate the applicability of a developed calculation tool in case projects. The focus was on implementation-phase methods that reduce costs and emissions. 

The study comprises a literature review on mass balance optimization methods and an applied section. In the applied section, a novel tool which uses Open Route Service matrix routing data was developed. The tool was evaluated in six infrastructure project case studies, and its performance was compared with established methods. 

The results indicate that the most significant way to reduce emissions and costs is the local reuse of excavated soils that are suitable for utilization. For soils that cannot be reused, the key factors are the selection of disposal sites and the optimization of transport routes. In the case studies the routes selected in the projects were most often among the most cost-efficient calculated routes. This finding supports the reliability of the tool. It was also observed that the most cost-efficient route is not often the one with the lowest emissions. Based on the case-studies the choosing routes based on emission minimization would have increased total costs on the studied routes by an average of 12 %. This corresponds to an increase of approximately 2–3 % in total project costs. 

Based on the observations, the developed tool is adaptable and easy to implement in organizations with basic skills in Geographic Information Systems. Its greatest value is in the ability to quickly evaluate several different route combinations, considering costs and environmental impacts of the routes. The tool can be developed further and applied to support contractor decision-making and for example in municipal-level land use planning.

Author: Abdulkareem, Qasim Hussein

Supervisor: Assistant Professor: Noureldin Mohamed

Advisor(s): Non 

Funding: Non 

Abstract: 

This thesis investigates the fire performance of reinforced concrete (RC) structures through a comprehensive analysis of published simulation studies, benchmark experiments, and recent advancements in material technologies. No original simulations were performed. Instead, the study synthesizes existing research on ordinary Portland cement (OPC) concrete, geopolymer concrete (GPC), and ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC), focusing on thermal stability, spalling resistance, and post-fire residual strength.

Comparative findings are drawn from peer-reviewed finite element simulations using ABAQUS and SAFIR, as well as fire exposure modelling via Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS), validated against full-scale benchmark tests (e.g., Cardington, NIST) and real-case fire incidents. The review con-firms that GPC and fiber-reinforced UHPC outperform conventional OPC under elevated temperatures.

This thesis identifies critical limitations in prescriptive fire codes such as ISO 834, ACI 216.1, and EN 1992-1-2, which often fail to address nonlinear degradation and material-specific behaviour. In response, the study advocates for simulation-informed, performance-based fire design (PBFD), grounded in published evidence. Targeted recommendations are proposed to support structural resilience, code modernization, and sustainable material integration in fire-exposed RC infrastructure. 

Author: Faisal Umer

Supervisor: Sanandam Bordoloi 

Advisor: DSc Fan Zhang

Abstract: 

The performance of asphalt pavements is highly dependent on the properties of binders and aggregates used in their construction. The availability of new multi-sourced binders in Finnish road construction market requires their mechanical performance evaluation to determine their suitability for local climatic conditions. Furthermore, the sustainability goals make it essential to incorporate emission measurements in optimizing the binder selection process. 

This study investigated the mechanical performance and emission characteristics of bituminous binders from multiple suppliers in establishing a comprehensive assessment framework for Finnish road materials. The research particularly focused on analysing the impact of binder source, penetration grade and aggregates in dictating mixture performance and emission behaviour. Asphalt mixtures made using two binder grades (50/70 and 70/100) from three different suppliers (A, B, C) and two aggregates (Lokonmäki and Malmgård) were tested. The mechanical characterization included tests for tensile strength, moisture sensitivity, dynamic creep, stiffness, abrasion and low-temperature cracking resistance over a wide range of temperature and moisture conditions. Emission measurements were conducted for 50/70, 70/100 and 160/220 grade binders using Gasera 1 analyser. 

Results demonstrated that binders exhibited source dependency in terms of their mechanical behaviour and emissions. It was observed that mixtures with B-sourced 50/70 grade binder showed superior strength, stiffness and durability in combination with Malmgård aggregates while 70/100 grade binders resulted in better cracking and abrasion resistance with Lokonmäki aggregates. Malmgård aggregates showed better strength while Lokonmäki aggregates provided good moisture resistance and durability against abrasion. In addition, emissions analysis revealed that all binders emitted varying quantities of water vapour, CO2, CO, acetone, SO2 and total volatile organic compounds based on their thermal stability and chemical compositions. The emission levels increased as a function of temperature and approached a steady state value over continuous heating of the binders with lowest emissions recorded for A-sourced binders.

Overall, the observations showed that the binder source and grade have influence on both the mechanical performance and emissions. The findings support the utilization of an assessment framework combining mechanical and emissions analyses for sustainable binder selection.

Author: Simo Kauppila

Supervisor: Prof. Mikael Rinne

Advisor: MSc in Tech. Meeri Kaartinen

Financing: YIT Infra Oy, Ruskon Betoni Oy, Master Builders Solutions Finland Oy

 Abstract:

Author: Ida-Maria Savila
Supervisor:  Leena Korkiala-Tanttu
Advisor(s): Veli-MattiUotinen and Jalle Bäcklund
Funding: 

Abstract:

Author: Otto Kaukoranta
Supervisor: Leena Korkiala-Tanttu
Advisor(s): Juha Forsman, Liisa Taskila
Funding: 

Abstract:
Deep stabilization volumes have increased greatly in Finland since the introduction of the method. Reducing emissions from deep stabilization is a significant part of reducing carbon dioxide emissions from foundation construction. Emissions can be reduced, for example, by favoring low-carbon binder recipes. The use of these can be promoted with the low-carbon classifications of deep stabilization developed in the UUMA4 program. The goal of this work is to promote the introduction of low-carbon classifications in the procurement of deep stabilization.

This work presents the combining of deep stabilization low-carbon classifications with various procurement models, as well as example reviews of the use of low-carbon classifications. As part of the work, stabilization pillars were raised in the trial stabilization area of Helsinki Malminkenttä to examine the condition of their upper ends.

The studies carried out in the field included, among other things, pillar drilling, raising the upper sections of the pillars, determining the variation of the binder distribution in the cross section of the pillars (pH, NITON, penetrometer) and the diffusion of the binder around the pillar. The city of Helsinki, Stara and Ramboll were mainly responsible for the field studies. Samples were taken from the raised pillars and the clay surrounding them for laboratory studies. The studies included, among other things, compression tests and water content measurements. Aalto University and Ramboll were mainly responsible for the laboratory studies. Reporting other than penetrometer results is not included in this work.

Based on the quality control drillings, strength-emission figures were formed for the binders at 3 and 12 months of age. Based on the figures, it was found that strength per emissions produced similar results despite the different emission coefficients of the binders. This can be explained by the higher strengths achieved with higher emission coefficient binders.

Based on the results of quality control drilling and stabilization tests, two example reviews were made of the use of the low-carbon classification of deep stabilization binders (SSV) and the low-carbon classification of deep stabilization pillars (SPV). For the inspections, the amounts of binder were optimized to achieve the target strength. Based on the reviews, it was found that the total emissions of deep stabilization can be significantly affected by determining the appropriate SSV and/or SPV category. With the optimized amounts of binders, the emission reduction between binders of the highest and lowest SSV class was approximately 70%.

Author: Cassandra af Hällström
Supervisor: professor Mikael Rinne
Advisor(s): M.Sc. Jarmo Roinisto
Funding: Rockplan

Abstract: 

Building Information Modelling, or BIM, is a model-based construction process that is extensively utilized by many civil engineering disciplines, while its adoption in rock engineering design is less established. Widened BIM practice has led to increased supply of BIM supplementing techniques such as parametric and dynamic modelling. This study examines how parametric and dynamic BIM tools can be developed and applied in hard rock tunnel modelling, when an underground air energy storage is used as a case study. The study is realised with modelling software Civil 3D and its featured interfaces Subassembly Composer and Dynamo, as well as Rhino 7 and its graphical algorithm editor Grasshopper. Final modelling tools comprise of a dynamic tunnel baseline layout with parametrically adjustable access tunnel profiles and air storage cavern geometries. Also, an initial data material model with rock quality and water permeability drill core data is developed, as well as a parametric tunnel reinforcement design tool with complementary quantity calculations. All target tool types could be developed that functioned in accordance with desired tool performance. A successful modelling process could be achieved, and the tunnel design was optimised in terms of minimal use of reinforcement, excavation volumes, and consequently also cost and environmental influence. Software comparison and tool evaluation showed that Civil 3D was found most promising for tunnel layout design, whereas initial data material visualisation and reinforcement modelling was more beneficial to carry out in Rhino. However, results from Civil 3D plug-in Dynamo testing were insufficient and may have affected the final conclusions. Tool development was considered strenuous, but the tools showed high value in design due to their convenient and quick modification features, and potential for future application and redevelopment. Parametric features were considered prolific for modelling large-scale and repetitive patterns, which are characteristic features for tunnels. Also, involved stakeholders were presumed to comprehend design change consequences and solutions better with parametric BIM visualisation. Parametric and dynamic modelling may be implemented in all design stages where BIM is approved for use but was found most applicable in the feasibility study stage.

Author: Mikko Mäkelä
Supervisor: Augusto Cannone Falchetto
Advisor: Riikka Unhola (NRC Group Finland Oy)
Funding:

Abstract:

This thesis explores the potential integration of Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) into the procurement process of infrastructure companies and construction projects to reduce the industry's carbon footprint. The primary focus is on understanding the effects of including EPD requirements in procurement criteria and documents. The study aims to determine if such inclusion could impact the selection of material suppliers or contractors, potentially affecting competition in procurement.

The online survey was conducted among the company's contractual partners in Finland, and information on their environmental aspects and opinions on EPDs was gathered. Survey respondents represent diverse business areas, providing insights into the environmental perspectives within the industry. The survey results suggest that it is not, currently in 2024, profitable to include EPD requirements in procurement criteria due to potential negative consequences, such as a reduced amount of offers and unfavorable procurement outcomes.

However, the study anticipates a shift in the future, with the European Commission introducing more environmental requirements for the construction field in the EU, leading to a possible increase in regulated services for EPD production, verification, and maintenance. This could make EPDs more accessible for small and medium-sized businesses.

Author: Ville Helko
Supervisor: Mikael Rinne
Advisor(s): M.Sc, Annika Korhonen, M.Sc Aki Ullgren
Funding: Terrafame Oy

Abstract:
This master's thesis investigates the comparative efficacy of diesel powered rotary-percussion drilling and rotary drilling methods in the Kuusilampi deposit in Finland. The study aims to evaluate these drilling techniques in terms of performance, cost-effectiveness, and environmental impact, specifically focusing on aspects like drill hole stability, drilling times, drill bit performance, and operational drilling costs.

Through field tests and data analysis, the study assesses the advantages and disadvantages of drilling with Epiroc's COPROD and Sandvik's dr410i drill rigs considering the geological characteristics of the deposit. The findings are expected to aid mining companies to optimize drilling operations and reducing costs. The study is delimited comparing only the methods in open-pit mining without varying blasting parameters or cost analysis of different power sources. The study was performed with 165mm drill bits for COPROD rigs and with 229mm drill bits for the dr410i rotary rig.

The thesis concludes with strategic recommendations for selecting the most suitable drilling method for the deposit. The rotary method resulted more efficient drilling results with the sparser drilling pattern than the COPROD drilling. However, with diesel engines, the COPROD method was more cost effective compared to the dr410i rig. The blasting resulted more oversized boulders with 229 mm drill holes. More research is required to understand the phenomenom better. 

As the thesis only studied drilling with diesel engines, more research of electric and automated drilling methods is recommended. Alternative power sources and reduced number of operators might level out the differences in drilling costs between the methods.

�ձ�쾱��ä: Suvi Ylitörmänen
Valvoja: Leena Korkiala - Tanttu
Ohjaajat: Henry Gustavsson, Tero Mäkinen
Rahoitus: Taratest Oy

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Tämä diplomityö pyrkii tarkastelemaan Suomen, Ruotsin ja Norjan pohjatutkimusmenetelmiä, avaten niiden sovelluksia ja alueellisia erityispiirteitä suunnittelun kontekstissa. Pohjoismaiden ainutlaatuinen geotekninen ympäristö ja monipuolinen maaperä tarjoavat vertailupohjan, joka auttaa ymmärtämään eri menetelmien soveltuvuutta ja suorituskykyä erilaisissa olosuhteissa. Tutkielman tavoitteena on tunnistaa parhaita käytäntöjä, jotka vahvistavat alueellista asiantuntemusta ja edistävät kestävää infrastruktuurin kehitystä.

Työssä on tutkittu pohjatutkimusmenetelmiä, kuten kairauksia ja näytteenottoa. Kairausmenetelmistä on käsitelty erityisesti heijarikairaus, porakonekairaus, CPT-kairaus ja siipikairaus. Näytteenotossa on vertailtu maiden keskinäisiä käytäntöjä, erilaisia näytteenottotekniikoita sekä näytteenottimia.

Tutkimus osoitti, että Pohjoismaiden geotekniset haasteet ja maaperän monimuotoisuus vaativat monipuolisten pohjatutkimusmenetelmien käyttöä. Suomen, Ruotsin ja Norjan maaperäolosuhteet ja geologiset piirteet ovat monin osin samankaltaisia, mikä mahdollistaa menetelmien ja parhaiden käytäntöjen vertailun ja soveltamisen maiden välillä.

Johtopäätöksenä todetaan, että pohjatutkimusten huolellinen suunnittelu ja toteutus ovat keskeisiä infrastruktuurihankkeiden onnistumiselle. Tulokset korostavat yhteistyön merkitystä Pohjoismaiden välillä sekä tiedon ja kokemusten jakamisen tärkeyttä geoteknisten haasteiden ratkaisemiseksi. Tulevaisuudessa suositellaan entistä laajempaa kansainvälistä yhteistyötä ja standardien harmonisointia, jotta voidaan varmistaa korkealaatuiset ja kestävät rakennushankkeet kaikissa kolmessa maassa.

�ձ�쾱��ä: Samuel Francisco Chávez Romero
Valvoja: Professori Mikael Rinne
Ohjaajat: M.Sc. Tuomo Hänninen – M.Sc. Aki Ullgren
Rahoitus: Terrafame Oy

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Author: Kirill Goloviznin
Supervisor: Professor Jarkko Niiranen
Advisor: MSc Henry Gustavsson, PhD Summer Shahzad
Collaborative partner/sponsor: Ramboll Finland Oy

Abstract:

A concrete structure that is designed to last for a hundred years must withstand various actions, including temperature gradients which may cause cracking. Although such actions are typically provided in design standards, the Finnish design guidelines do not specify temperature loading for soil-immersed concrete structures like troughs or retaining walls. One of the current engineering approaches is to adopt the loading from the Bridge design guidelines and apply it in the linear elastic finite element analysis which results in excessive reinforcement. The first problem with this method is that the temperature magnitude is too large for soil-immersed structures. And the second problem is that the linear elastic model does not account for stress relaxation due to concrete cracking. The aim of the research is to calculate proper temperature distribution and derive an equivalent temperature loading for crack assessment, applicable in the linear finite element analysis. First, the temperature distribution is calculated with a thermal conduction analysis, based on annual recorded temperatures, thermal insulation surrounding the structure, and the water content of the soil. Then it is applied in the nonlinear analysis to calculate crack width and required reinforcement. Finally, an equivalent temperature for the linear analysis is determined which requires the same amount of reinforcement as predicted by the nonlinear analysis.

Author: Hamza Javed
Supervisor: Professor Jussi Leveinen
Advisor(s):  Dr Mateusz Janiszewski, Dr Tero Hokkanen

Abstract:
 Rock mass characterization is vital for assessing the geotechnical and geomechanical stability of a rock mass which ensures safe tunnel designs and ultimately a sufficient reinforcement design. The validity and reliability of different rating systems is based on the accurate characterization of fracture parameters like orientation, joint set number, spacing etc. A comprehensive study of such fracture parameters will only ensure the correctness of numerical models. In this thesis, a combination of non-invasive techniques for mapping of fracture properties is studied. Photogrammetry uses 3-D digitization technique to generate high resolution models of the rock mass while ground penetrating radar can image the subsurface for fractures in a tunneling environment. The research location is tunnel 3 at the Underground Research Laboratory of Aalto University (URLA). 

The research questions are: What are the limitations imposed by ground penetrating radar in tunnels? How can GPR be used for characterization of fractures within the rock mass? How can photogrammetry be used to evaluate geometrical properties of fractures and digitization of roughness profiles? 

This thesis deals with the characterization of fracture properties like orientation, joint set number, aperture, filling, roughness, spacing and persistence through the use of photogrammetry and GPR. Photogrammetry is carried to reconstruct a 3-D point cloud which is analyzed in a point cloud editing software and discontinuity set extractor for the extraction of joint properties. The test site is divided into two mapping windows. GPR (800 MHz) is used to survey four vertical profiles on the rock mass where photogrammetry is conducted. The four profiles are processed and interpreted showing two to maximum of four fractures. The analysis suggest that the fractures observed with GPR in the test site are all thin bed fractures whose aperture is smaller than the radar range resolution. The floor survey profile by 500 MHz in the same tunnel shows three wide fractures with a mean aperture of 10.3 cm in one of the fractures. 

Sensitivity analysis resulted in three joint sets for mapping window one and four joint sets for mapping window two. The surface analysis concluded in moderate spacing of joint sets ranging between 0.2-0.6 m with undulating rough fracture surfaces as indicated by the manual and digitized joint roughness profiles. GPR studies concluded the wall surveys to have thin-bed subvertical fractures in the subsurface with moderate spacing of 0.2-0.6 m between the individual fractures. 

Keywords Photogrammetry, Ground penetrating radar, fracture properties, thin bed fractures, joint roughnes

Author: Achintha Rathnayaka
Supervisor: Professor Mikael Rinne
Advisor(s): MSc Oskar van der Weij
Funding: Partly funded by  Kalliosuunnittelu Oy Rockplan Ltd. (Finnmap-Infra oy)

Abstract:

Megacities are growing faster than ever before where the demand for adequate parking spaces is continuing to rise while diminishing the free buildable space. Underground parking facilities offer a way around this problem. Building underground can be done in two major ways, either a parking facility in a tunnel or as an open pit version. In countries where the bed rock is at a shallow depth, underground excavation would need to carry out in hard rock in both variants

Giving the impact a large excavation would have on nearby existing structures especially considering the highly disruptive nature of rock excavation techniques it is important to assess the rock mechanical feasibility of the two options when selecting the appropriate method. Further, it is also vital to assess the environmental impacts and overall costs to identify the most favorable approach.

This thesis explored a case study from Meilahti hospital area where an Open-pit parking facility was proposed. A hypothetical underground tunnel version of the parking facility was developed to assess its rock mechanical viability using 3DEC numerical modelling software and compared the results with the open-pit version. Further, total CO2 emissions were computed using One click LCA software and also, the expected theoretical costs of both options were calculated and compared.  

It was observed that the tunnel version would result in minimal displacements at surrounding structures, ranging from 2….3 mm. But, in open pit version the displacements are rather high even more than 10mm at some locations.  Higher displacements could result in severe fractures in the existing tunnel's shotcrete layer, as well as foundation settlement in surrounding structures, causing shear cracks in the walls.

In terms of CO2 output, both variants emit same level of CO2 with a slightly low percentage difference in the tunnel version. Further, there was a considerable difference with the total rock construction related cost where open pit version would cost nearly 1.5 times as much as the tunnel version.

Keywords:  Parking facility, Tunnel, 3DEC, Hard rock modelling, CO2 eq.,  

Author: Sofia Kiikkerä
Supervisor: Sanandam Bordoloi
Advisors: Juha Auvinen
Funding: City of Helsinki

Electro-osmosis is a dewatering method best suitable for cohesive soils, whereby a direct current is applied to the soil by electrodes. The application of current causes a flow of water towards the cathode where it can be removed. This results in consolidation of the soil.

A laboratory study was designed to investigate the feasibility of electro-osmosis in Finnish clay. Undisturbed samples from Malmi field were collected and tested under three different voltages to evaluate the effectiveness of the method. In some tests, electro-osmosis was applied together with incremental loading to gain knowledge of the combined effects. 

The coefficient of electro-osmotic permeability was evaluated from the test data. Corrosion of the electrodes, pH changes and the negative porewater pressure developed were also calculated. These results can be used to design field tests in the future.

Author: Naum Shpata
Supervisor: Professor Wojciech Sołowski
Advisor(s): Piotr Kanty (Menard)
Funding: DeMiCo project

Simulation of the vibration caused by dynamic compaction is complicated, and more research needs to be done on it. The complexity of the problems varies over many factors, including lack of valuable data, different soil properties and behaviour. The main reason is that the willingness to simulate the vibration has been low because the method has usually been applied in remote areas. However, the soil improvement method is considered a small carbon emission method and must be utilised in urban areas where nearby structures are vulnerable to vibrations. This study presents a comprehensive overview of wave propagation, introduces a constitutive model, and replicates the vibration caused by dynamic compaction on a study case within the Finite Element Framework. The model contains two input parameters: shear modulus and Poisson's ratio. The model considers a nonlinear stress-strain relationship at small strains based on a constant reference stiffness degradation curve. 

The model's capabilities were demonstrated in a confirmed case of dynamic compaction, specifically in Gdańsk, as conducted by the Menard Group. The study implemented two falling heights, 5 and 10 m, in a sand soil area. The model can achieve high accuracy when calibrated correctly, providing a reliable tool for predicting wave vibrations. However, it is essential to note that the maximum shear modulus can significantly influence the result, and the dynamic properties of the soil are a crucial factor. The need for an accurate estimation of the damping ratio is evident. While the model can be applied in practice, paying attention to the importance of input parameters from the field is crucial, as they play a significant role in the model's performance and the accuracy of its predictions. 

Keywords dynamic analysis, FEM modelling, dynamic compaction, vibrations, small strain non-linear constitutive mode

Author: Minna Laitinen
Supervisor: Professor Leena Korkiala-Tanttu
Advisors: M.Sc. (Tech) Jani Lepistö, M.Sc. (Tech) Henry Gustavsson
Funding: Insinööritoimisto Lepistö Oy

Abstract:

In this thesis a variable head field test was studied in determining hydraulic conductivity, i.e., k-value, of unsaturated soil. Of interest was, how the test results relate to other methods of defining k-value. The primary area of interest was how useful the field test is in supporting stormwater infiltration design compared to other methods. The methods used in comparison with the field test included computational methods, laboratory tests, and literature values. Some other methods of determining the k-value are mentioned as well, although they are not used in this study. In addition, a brief survey based on expert interviews was made of the current practices of determining the k-value in stormwater design. 

Computational methods are based on the grain size of the soil. They also variably take other factors influencing k-value into account. As a result of this study, it turned out that for unsaturated soil, the formulas generally overestimate hydraulic conductivity, or are otherwise unreliable in estimating it.

Laboratory tests were performed as variable and constant head tests. In this study, the natural density of the soil was not determined, so the samples were compacted using a certain number of blows of the compactor. This probably led to samples differing in density from the natural state. Without in-situ density determination, these tests are not a reliable way to obtain natural k-values.

The results of the field tests were calculated using two formulas, one of which is simpler and developed for saturated soil, and the other for evaluating the k-value of unsaturated soil. It was concluded that the results obtained with the last-mentioned formula are probably the closest to the real k-value. The method seems to be suitable at least for sandy and gravelly soils.

Keywords:  hydraulic conductivity, variable head test, k-value, unsaturated soil, field test

Author: Iiro Lindgren
Supervisor: Professor Wojciech Solowski
Advisors: M.Sc.(Tech) Antti Perälä (SSAB Oy), M.Sc. Petri Tyynelä (Ramboll Finland Oy)
Funding:  SSAB oy, Scandia Steel

Abstract:

All types of piles have some form of initial curvature, and it is impossible to install them completely straight. This curvature can lower the pile's structural resistance, and thus, designers need to take the curvature into account in the design. This is done using table values in standards that predict the pile's initial deflection from a straight center line.
This Master's thesis compares table values for pile curvature from Finland's RIL 254-2016 and upcoming Eurocode revision to actual pile measurements. Actual steel pile curvature measurements were collected from Finland and Sweden, and datasets were compared with the table values to determine how accurately they predict the curvature of piles. In addition to these comparisons, based on the datasets aim was to find the impactful variables affecting pile curvature. For this, two hypotheses were presented: "Jacked piles are prone to be most curved" and "Larger diameter piles are generally straighter." 
The results show that overall, the table values from Finland's RIL 254-2016 and Eurocode predict the pile curvature relatively well. Data used in this thesis agree with the hypothesis that jacked piles are prone to be more curved on average than other installation methods. However, the hypothesis that small-diameter piles are, on average more curved could not be proven with the data available in the thesis. Some parts of the data agreed with the hypothesis, and some contradicted it. Due to the problematic nature of the data, the results are inconclusive, and more detailed measurements with all background variables would be needed to answer the problems presented in this thesis more thoroughly.

Keywords:  Steel pile, curvature, initial deflection, data analysis, standards

Author: Tommi Lehtovirta
Supervisor: Professor Jussi Leveinen
Advisors: M.Sc.(Tech) Taavi Dettenborn (Ramboll Finland Oy), M.Sc.(Tech) Tuuli Teittinen (Ramboll Finland Oy)
Funding:  Ramboll Finland Oy, Green Building Council Finland, Rakennusteollisuus, ��ä���ä�����������ٴ�, Espoon kaupunki, Helsingin kaupunki, Vantaan kaupunki

Abstract:

The purpose of this master’s thesis was to get an estimate of the annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions (CO2e) of Finnish infrastructure construction. For the study, the sub-areas belonging to infrastructure construction were defined and available information on annual construction and maintenance was investigated. When choosing the research method, different emission calculation methods were mapped, and the possibilities of their implementation were evaluated. Based on the observations during the work and the results, consideration was also given as to how the emissions calculation should be carried out in the future.

Three methods were selected as different emission calculation methods, which were emission calculation based on construction and maintenance quantities, emission calculation based on material flow, and investment quantities. Based on the research during the work and the data obtained, it was possible to calculate the emissions most accurately based on the usage of the key construction materials. In this way an estimate was calculated that the emissions of Finnish infrastructure are 2210 kt CO₂e per year. The obtained result can be regarded as an estimate, due to the quality of the source material and the assumptions made during the calculation. In addition to this, the emission calculation based on the investment quantities yielded results of the same order of magnitude, which is why the method can be considered as potential. However, a calculation based on investment quantities would need more and better data as a basis, so that the results could be considered reliable. Based on the construction and maintenance quantities, it was not possible to calculate the emissions of infrastructure construction in Finland as a whole, due to the lack of information on construction quantities.

Based on the findings in this study, the statistics of construction and maintenance figures for infrastructure construction should be improved and unified to make the calculation easier to implement. Based on the results of the work, it would also be recommended that the emission calculation of infrastructure construction should be based on material flow in the future to consider all special structures.

Keywords: Infrastructure construction, CO2e, carbon footprint, greenhouse gas emissions

Author: Ossi Perttu
Supervisor: Professor Leena Korkiala-Tanttu
Advisors: Juha Forsman, Monica Löfman 
Funding: Aalto University, Ramboll 

Abstract: 
Optimizing various ground improvement methods. Emissions and costs comparison between different methods.

Author: Tewodros Dugasa Gebre 
Supervisor: Professor Augusto Cannone Falchetto
Advisors: Dr.-Ing. Di Wang (Aalto), Noora Eklöf, MSc. (Ramboll Finland Oy)
Funding: Ramboll Finland Oy

Abstract

The phases of road construction, operation, and maintenance are accompanied by significant emissions from the material production, construction and maintenance works, and vehicles using the infrastructure. Hence, the concept of Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) is quite important for the road infrastructure industry. Numerous tools are used to adopt the comprehensive methodologies of LCA and develop informed and efficient decisions for better measurement, interpretation, and reduction of emissions. Despite the availability of tools used for LCA in the road sector in Finland, no comprehensive study has been made to evaluate, compare, and contrast them. Therefore, this thesis studied LCA tools, namely, ZEROInfra and FuelSave, used by Ramboll Finland Oy, developed for road construction and operation purposes, respectively, by taking a road project in Finland as a case study. It also investigated the possibility of merging them into one platform, which can serve both phases altogether. Furthermore, Klimatkalkyl from Sweden and VegLCA from Norway, which already cover a wide range of LCA phases, are also included to compare estimations of environmental impacts from the product and construction phases of LCA. The emissions from vehicles’ operation were evaluated using FuelSave.

A selected road project in Helsinki, Finland, was used as a case study to assess and compare the quantitative emission results from the tools among the outputs of ZEROInfra, Klimatkalkyl and VegLCA. The study also qualitatively investigated and compared the tools’ features, including, but not limited to, user interface, calculation accuracy, and data output. It further involved insights into the limitations of each LCA tool used by Ramboll Finland Oy and identified potential areas for improvement so that the same can be considered while merging the tools. 

The cost estimation spreadsheet exported from the infrastructure cost management system, Ihku, was used as initial data to select the items included in the system boundary. Only the items that can be analyzed in all tools for the product and construction phases were selected. The quantitative analysis revealed that the environmental impacts calculated by ZEROInfra, VegLCA, and Klimatkalkyl were 2,524-ton CO2 eq, 2,445-ton CO2 eq and 2,546-ton CO2 eq, respectively. These values show that with the same system boundary and transport distance of materials assumed, the tools produced equivalent total emission calculations. However, the calculation results for each component of the system boundary differed due to various factors, such as the aggregation of work items to fit into the input features of the tools and differences in material property assumptions considered by each tool. Furthermore, the qualitative comparison showed that the software tools differed in features, life cycle phases covered, database, user interface, data input/output, and data analysis and interpretation.

The environmental impact from the vehicle operation was performed using FuelSave. The result showed that for an analysis period of 20 years, the emission from the vehicles’ operation was 123,714-ton CO2. The results also presented the relationship between the geometry and speed of vehicles with fuel consumption and environmental impact. The large amount of emissions obtained from this phase of LCA shows that vehicle operation of a road has more environmental impact than the material extraction, transport and installation during the product and construction phases.

It was found out that the merging of ZEROInfra and FuelSave should consider the improvements of the limitations of each tool. Further considerations to the inclusion of broader LCA phases, impact categories, energy computation, and infrastructure types were recommended. Quality of data importation/exportation and BIM integration were also features that were found critical in the process of merging the tools.

Keywords: Life cycle assessment tools, LCA, construction phase, use phase, ZEROInfra, FuelSave, VegLCA, Kliamatkalkyl

Author: Beyza Asar
Supervisor: Prof. Leena Korkiala- Tanttu
Advisors: Raghuram Ammavajjala and Henry Gustavsson

Abstract:

Deep mixing method (DMM) is one of the most used methods to stabilize soft clay in Finland. DMM is a process that involves combining soil at its inherent moisture content with stabilizing agents such as cement and lime. Nevertheless, it can be noted that both lime and cement have a high carbon footprint. This has a negative effect on the environment and ecosystem. To deal with this problem, Aalto University has been studying the effect of carbonation on the reaction of alternative binders. 

The main objective of this research is to assess how the amount of binder and carbonation duration affects the ability of stabilized soft clays to carbon sequestration capacity. Four different binders were used in laboratory for stabilizing soft clay from Malmi area of Helsinki, Finland.  These binders are GTC (a mixture of gypsum, slaked lime, and cement type I) provided from Nordkalk Oy, CEMI (cement type I), CEMIII (cement type III) sourced from Finnsementti Oy, and UPM (fly ash) obtained from UPM-Kymmene Oy + CEMII (cement type II) sourced from also Finnsementti Oy. 

Unconfined compression strength (UCS) tests and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) were performed. The aim was to observe the effect of carbonation on the strength of the soft clay based on UCS tests. In addition, TGA was used to determine temperature range that weight loss of the soft clay occurs.  The amount of carbon dioxide that was sequestered can be established by measuring the weight reduction that occurs during TGA. 

CEMI binder was the most effective binder on the strength of the soft clays with 18% and 10% increasing strength due to carbonation for 150 kg/m³ and 175 kg/m³, respectively. In addition, CEMI binder had the second highest amount of carbon dioxide (CO₂) absorption. However, the highest amount of net CO₂ was found for CEMI due to CO₂ emissions from manufacturing. GTC binder absorbed the most amount of CO₂ with between 12 and 17 kg CO₂ eq. e. /m³ compared to other binders, and the amount of CO₂ emissions from manufacturing of it was the least. Nevertheless, GTC binder did not show any positive effect on strength of the soft clay due to carbonation. The amount of weight loss of the samples increased by carbonation for all binder types, and it was seen that the amount of weight loss of the samples increased by rising binder content of the samples, except UPM+CEMII binder. Based on the UCS tests results, it was observed that higher amounts of binder, particularly at concentrations of 150 kg/m³ and 175 kg/m³, positively impacted the strength of the stabilized soft clays, except GTC binder.

Keywords: deep mixing method, soft clay stabilization, binder content, carbon sequestration capacity, unconfined compression strength, thermogravimetric analysis

Author: Jari Ikävalko
Supervisor: Professor Leena Korkiala-Tanttu
Advisors: Juha Forsman, Asko Aalto
Funding: Helsingin kaupunki, ��ä���ä�����������ٴ�, Ramboll Finland Oy, Nordkalk Oy, UPM, PVO, and Finnsementti.

Abstract: Available in Finnish

Author: Bo Telén
Supervisor: Prof. Leena Korkiala- Tanttu
Advisors: Leona Silberstein MA (City of Helsinki), Sanna Anttila MEng. (City of Helsinki)
Funding: City of Helsinki

Abstract: 

This review was made for city of Helsinki as part of PlastLIFE project. PlastLIFE project has been started to figure out ways to lower plastic use and improve its recycling. Specialists for city of Helsinki and their YKT-partners were interviewed to figure out what kind of infrastructures they construct using plastics. Additionally, data provided by Ramboll Finland Oy was used along with infrastructure design manuals. The type of plastic used in different structures were found out and the most used plastics were to be found.

The provided data was used to choose few infrastructure projects for a more detailed examination. In the detailed examination the provided data was combed through to find the plastics used in the examined projects. This was done to find out the most impactful sources of plastic in infra-structural construction. Finnish Environment Institutes CO₂-values were used in theoretical calculations to compare emissions from structures with plastic and structures without plastic. 

In this review the most impactful plastic sources were found out to be filter fabrics and protective pipes for cables. Also, it was found out that there is overuse of filter fabrics in infrastructural construction in Helsinki as it is used in places where it might not be needed. According to the theoretical calculations the current way of doing the filter structures with filter fabrics causes more CO₂-emissions than the older way of doing filter sand layers.

Keywords: PlastLIFE, YKT, plastic, infrastructural construction, CO₂-emissions, Green deal, Finnish Environment Institute, city of Helsinki

Author: Chenjie Ruan
Supervisor: Prof. Wojciech Solowski
Advisors: Dr. Mikko Sauni and Dr. Mikael Takala (��ä���ä�����������ٴ�)
Funding: Finnish Transport Infrastructure Agency

Abstract: 

Passing trains cause vibrations and load cycles in the ballast, subsoil, and structures.  These cycles degrade ballast over time. Indraratna et al. (2010) and Sun et al. (2014) have shown that the higher speed of the train does not necessarily increase the load much, but the higher frequencies of vibrations lead to quicker ballast degradation. This work investigated the effects of vibrations induced by high-speed trains with varying ballast degradation levels on nearby structures based on the research conducted with the FEM model.  The thesis also proposed a method for initially estimating the relationship between increasing train speeds and track maintenance intervals according to a simple model Sun et al. (2014) developed for estimating the degree of ballast degradation based on train speeds and load cycles.

In total, the work shows 48 Finite Element Method simulations. Combing 6 signals of train displacement, 4 cross-sections, and considering 3 different ballast conditions for three of these signals. The findings indicate that increasing the train speed has a significant impact on the vibration of nearby structures. If the train speed is raised from 120km/h to 200km/h, the vibration of the structures, excluding the sheet pile wall, will increase by around 20% to 40%. However, the vibration of the sheet pile wall will be amplified by two times. The impact of ballast conditions on vibrations is only noteworthy when its condition is poor.

Additionally, a resonance effect was found in the numerical calculations when the train speed was increased to 160km/h, which suggests that resonance may occur in a certain section of the Kokemäki -Pori railway line.

Author: Hares Noori
Supervisor: professor Mikael Rinne
Advisor(s):
Funding: 

Abstract:

Author: Dimitris Rovithis
Supervisor: professor Mikael Rinne
Advisor(s): Mats Isaksson MSc, Douwe Osinga MSc
Funding: Boliden AB

Abstract:
This collaborative master's thesis was conducted in partnership with Boliden AB and centers on providing design criteria for the main orebody located below 1000 meters in Garpenberg's mine, with the aim of enabling the use of autonomous and electrified machinery. Furthermore, based on the identified criteria, new designs for this orebody are generated. Presently, Boliden's mining operations utilize manual and semi-autonomous, diesel-operated machines; however, the company's objective is to transition to electric machines that can operate autonomously or remotely from a control room. Consequently, the current mine infrastructure of operating mines must be integrated, and new mines not yet in production must be designed to accommodate the needs of autonomous and electrified machines, to optimize mining processes.

This transition necessitates a substantial amount of additional mining infrastructure, compared to a conventional mine, employing manual operations of diesel-operated machinery. The construction of charging stations for Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) or infrastructure for cable-electric vehicles is essential. Additionally, methods for utilizing the regenerative braking of electric vehicles (EVs) should be examined and changes in opening dimensions and road conditions may be necessary to optimize the use of autonomous equipment. Moreover, the possibility of combining manned and unmanned vehicles in the same area, as well as an increased power supply, may also require consideration. The objective of this thesis is to outline the design criteria for an autonomous and electric underground mine, create two new designs, and compare them to the current one using work cycle simulations of LHDs and trucks, ultimately selecting the most efficient design. 

The thesis yields three major contributions: first, it establishes design guidelines for an autonomous and electric mine; second, it introduces two innovative designs labeled as "V" and "W," specifically adapted to meet the new criteria; and third, it conducts a comparative analysis of the designs. The analysis involves work cycle simulations of loaders and trucks for different scenarios, comparing the current design with the two new designs to determine the most efficient option.

Author: Tuomas Suoniemi
Supervisor: : Professor Jussi Leveinen
Advisor(s): Msc Kimmo Koppström
Funding: Agnico Eagle Finland

Abstract:

Agnico Eagle Finland Kittilä gold mine is located in Lapland about 40 km northeast of Kittilä. The mine has traditionally used muck sampling to determine the average stope gold grade. Muck sampling is problematic when used with remote loading, as the operator is no longer able to collect samples directly from the loader’s bucket. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the suitability of drill cuttings sampling in average stope gold grade estimation. The research focuses on the accuracy, precision, representativeness, strengths and weaknesses of drill cuttings (sludge) sampling, as well as a rough evaluation of costs and time demand. One sample per drill rod was collected from 15.7 m standalone holes that were drilled with a cable bolting machine. The samples were split with a sample divider during sampling.

The literacy review presents the theory of sampling originally developed by Pierre Gy, the theory's different types of sampling errors, and the prerequisites of representative sampling. The most relevant type of error is the fundamental sampling error, which cannot be eliminated, only reduced. The equation of the fundamental sampling error can be used to estimate the size of a representative sample mass. Additionally, geostatistical methods for sampling analysis for example, the variogram, as well as different methods for analysing drillhole spacing are reviewed.

Based on the results, the precision of sludge sampling is worse than muck sampling. Sludge sampling was not able to systematically produce average grades that were close to the averages given by muck sampling when looking at individual stopes. However, the differences were evened out on a wider scale, and the combined sludge and infill composite samples generated a tonne-weighted average gold grade, which was -5 % of the average given by muck sampling. The conducted sludge sampling was found not to be representative.  The accuracy could be improved with longer sludge holes that reach the stope’s upper parts and improve spatial representativeness. The weakness of sludge sampling is its sensitivity to errors. The sample recovery rate was poor on average, and frequent extraction errors were observed during sampling. Further tests are recommended with the aim of improving the recovery, as well as determining the effect of longer holes on sampling accuracy.

Author: Matti Kakko
Supervisor: professor Leena Korkiala-Tanttu
Advisor(s): MSc Henry Gustavsson, MSc Alejandra Lopez Ramirez
Funding: 

Abstract:
 In this master’s thesis two new constant rate of strain (CRS) oedometer devices were introduced ɫɫ�� University soil laboratory. The purpose of this master’s thesis is to find out the problems that arise during the commissioning of the new equipment and to find solutions for those problems. In addition, interpretation tools were prepared for MATLAB and Excel software, as well as user manuals for the hardware.

There were several problems with the commissioning of the devices. The problems were related to hardware components, mechanical behaviour of the hardware and software. The problems with components of the hardware were solved. Problems with mechanical behaviour of the became known so that they can be taken into account when performing tests. Problems with the software were not solved in this master’s thesis.

With the new constant rate of strain oedometer devices parallel test series were done between the new devices and parallel to incrementally loaded oedometer (ILOT) devices. The obtained test results were compared between the devices. The test results were also examined based on the knowledge of clay beahviour under uniaxial vertical compression.  

The test result obtained with the new CRS devices were found to be correct in terms of size and scale and comparable with each other and with old ILOT devices. Accurate comparison between the equipment needs more test that can be compared with each other.

Author: Anssi Luoma
Supervisor: Professor Leena Korkiala-Tanttu
Advisor(s): Dsc. Anoosheh Iravanian, MSc. Henry Gustavsson
Funding: 

Abstract:
The use of recycled materials is the key component of sustainable development in the construction industry. This study examines the suitability of recycled materials obtained from the Turku region for non-load bearing wall structure using both rammed earth and casting methods.

The traditional method of rammed earth involves compacting damp natural soil inside a mold. The mold may be removed immediately after compacting the soil, leaving behind well-structured compacted earth. Casting technique was specifically studied focusing on precast interlocking concrete blocks. For both techniques the objective was to create suitable and environmentally friendly material using recycled materials. The materials used as binders were bio-based fly ash and bottom ash, blast furnace slag and CEM III/B. Crushed concrete and quarry fines were used as aggregates.

Laboratory tests, such as ultrasonic pulse velocity, unconfined compression test and freeze-thaw tests were carried out to investigate the properties and suitability of the recycled materials for the selected construction methods. The results were juxtaposed with prior studies, and certain recycled materials exhibited promising outcomes in terms of their suitability for non-load bearing wall structures. 

Author: Abdi Wayu
Supervisor: Professor Leena Korkiala-Tanttu
Advisor(s): MSc. Henry Gustavsson, Dsc. Anoosheh Iravanian
Funding: SIBELCO

Abstract:
Use of recycled glass is on the increase due to its environmental and economic benefits. This has now resulted in surplus of fine-grained sand coming out of quartzite quarrying operations within the Nilsiä district that for years has served as one of main raw materials for glass and china production facilities. This excess has created a problem, necessitating a re-evaluation and investigation of other applications for this resource.

This thesis investigates the suitability of using secondary material and side stream products in combination with fine grained Nilsiä sands as a construction material. The main focus of this study is to determine the technical properties of Nilsiä sand by laboratory testing and evaluate its applicability in earth construction in a sustainable way. 

Literature review was conducted to find earlier studies conducted concerning the use of fine-grained sand as a construction material. The filler and aggregates used in this study were silica sand from Nilsiä as well as varying sizes of quarry fines. The used binders were namely: cement, fly ash, lime kiln dust and bottom ash. The index properties of fine-grained Nilsiä sand were experimentally measured through sieve analysis test, modified Proctor compaction test and specific gravity test. By using Nilsiä sand and quarry fines as frame material and addition of different binders, stabilized sand mixtures were produced. The binders were tested for flexural and compressive strength. A uniaxial compression test was performed to determine compressive strength of all stabilized mixtures. The durability of stabilized mixtures was tested in a freeze-thaw test.

In conclusion, from the two recipes, the stabilized mixtures made of Nilsiä sand, quarry fines 0-8 mm using binders fly ash and lime kiln dust could fulfill the targeted minimum compressive strength of 5 MPa. 
 

Author: Juho Laulajainen
Supervisor: Leena Korkiala-Tanttu
Advisor: Professor Jouni Punkki and MSc Sauli Maanpää
Funding: Betoniteollisuus ry, ��ä���ä�����������ٴ�, SM Maanpää Oy 

Abstract:

In this thesis, the durability of reinforced concrete piles in the soil and the factors influencing the aging of the piles are investigated. The principles of the service life design of reinforced concrete piles are examined in the work, especially in conditions classified as aggressive. The aim is to add information to the service life design of reinforced concrete piles and to review the rationale for the current service life design. The advantages of a reinforced concrete pile are low costs, installation speed and high penetration depths. The study consists of a literature review, in-situ studies, and laboratory studies. The work was to be carried out mainly experimentally on samples collected from old piles. Within the research schedule, pile samples were collected from a total of two sites in Turku and Espoo. No samples were found for conditions classified as aggressive. The conclusions presented in this study on persistence under aggressive conditions are based on previous research data found in the literature.

The main findings of the study are that reinforced concrete piles have excellent conditions for strength development and the long-term strength of pile concrete is considerably higher than the design strength. Piles are generally protected from the most common stressors in concrete, carbonation, frost stress and chloride stress. Based on literature and in-situ studies, the presence of sulfates is common in the Coastal Region, but soils are rarely harmful and aggressive to concrete piles. Although the sulphate risk is not common, it must be taken seriously and the actual acidity of the soil must always be determined. An indicative approach for planners to determine soil aggressiveness is shown in the conclusions of the study.

Keywords:  reinforced concrete pile, durability design, sulfide clay, acid sulphate soil, service life.

Author: Pyry Venho
Supervisor: professor Mikael Rinne
Advisors: Tuomo Hänninen
Funding: INFRA ry:n louhintajaosto

Abstract:

This Master’s Thesis was commissioned by INFRA ry as a background study for Finnish guidance for rock blasting RIL 253-2010.

In this thesis, vibration due to rock blasting was studied empirically and theoretically. The theoretical part of the thesis studies how frequency, amplitude, and velocity correlate with each other, and researches different theories regarding vibration damage mechanisms, as well as, the history of the Finnish vibration guidance. To support the theoretical part, extensive empirical research was conducted. A concrete building (9,4m*9,4m*1,4m) was constructed with the idea to measure the ground vibrations in the structure and bedrock from different kinds of rock blasting. There were altogether five blastings; first two were production blasts, and the latter three were made for research purposes. Damages occurred as the amplitude increased, frequency and amplitude did not depend on distance in short distances. Frequency formed from detonation times in short, less than 35 meter distances. Vibration in bedrock was mainly horizontal, but as it gets to the structure, vertical component was dominant in almost every measurement point. Only differences were in measurement points 8 and 7 that located in the middle of wall. In those measurement points the rectangular component for the wall was highest, i.e. wall swayed. Based on this study, the key finding is that amplitude or frequency should be measured in concrete buildings in short distances.

Author: Samu Mustonen
Supervisor: professor Jussi Leveinen
Advisors: M.Sc. Aki Peltola
Funding: Tampereen kaupunki and Tampereen Raitiotie Oy

Abstract:

Public decision making concerning investments should be based on as good and as reliable cost estimate as possible. This requires good and reliable cost data. Public transportation investments have been on the rise due to emission goals and urbanization. This has created a need to raise cost awareness with civil engineering clients in the public sector. The goal of this thesis is to model resource-based nomenclatures associated with tramway superstructure to Ihku cost management system.

Research was done by interviewing experts of the field, investigating existing nomenclature and cost estimation guides as well as tramway design guides. Structure and associated nomenclatures of the superstructure of tramway were composed, their production components were investigated and resources were assigned respectively. Modelled nomenclatures were tested by recalculating cost estimates of different projects.

The research discovered that there are no comprehensive and standardized nomenclatures for tramway superstructure in Finland. For example railway structures have been specified in the Infra 2015 Määrämittausohje. Resource-based modelling was done by interviewing experts, exploiting applicable railway and street nomenclatures, exploiting the existing inner city tram of Helsinki and the information from ongoing tramway projects. Testing of the nomenclatures was done by recalculating bill of quantities from three different projects with the unit prices built with the modelled nomenclatures.

Based on the test calculations the unit prices work quite well with big projects and quantities, but as the project size gets smaller and quantities diminish, the inaccuracy of the nomenclatures and unit prices start to take over. With large quantities both exceedings and passings of the target costs even out each other, but with smaller quantities the unit prices that cause deflection from the target cost can be relatively so large that they distort the outcome of the cost estimation. Refining the nomenclatures to be more work method related and possibly making nomenclature packages for the superstructure are given as development suggestions.

Keywords: tramway, cost estimation, resource-based theory, production components, nomenclature, cost management

Author: Mathias Lauraeus:
Supervisor: professor Mikael Rinne
Advisors: M.Sc. Paavo Jääskeläinen
Funding: Destia Ltd, Bang & Bonsomer Ltd, Betulium Ltd, Normet Ltd

Abstract:

Shotcrete is a widely used rock reinforcement method that has an impact on the carbon footprint of underground construction and mining. Possible methods for improving the sustainability of shotcrete are, e.g., replacing a portion of cement in the mix with new low-carbon materials or increasing the plastic yield-stress of fresh shotcrete without affecting the water to cement ratio of the mix. The plastic yield-stress of fresh shotcrete controls, e.g., rebound rate and maximum build-up thickness.

A microfibrillated cellulose hydrogel (MFC) has recently drawn interest from the shotcrete industry due to its potential to improve the sustainability and cost-efficiency of shotcrete. The MFC is produced from by-products of the sugar beet industry, which gives the material an extremely low carbon footprint. The MFC has rheology modifying effects on aqueous systems such as shear thinning behaviour and high zero-shear viscosity, which may, e.g., promote the immediate stiffness of shotcrete after spraying and enhance better stability of the shotcrete base mix.  

In this thesis, a preliminary study on the benefits of MFC in shotcrete application was done by a series of laboratory tests. The primary interest was to test whether the MFC improves the very-early compressive strength development of shotcrete. Affection of material on workability, stability, air content, final compressive strength, bond strength to rocks, and compatibility with setting retarding admixtures was also studied.  

Results indicate that the MFC improves the immediate stiffness of accelerated shotcrete. However, zero-shear viscosity and air content of the base mix increase along with the higher dosage of MFC. The material does not affect the performance of setting retarding admixtures. Moreover, the MFC has no significant affection on the shotcrete’s final compressive strength and bond strength to rocks.  

Keywords  Microfibrillated cellulose, shotcrete, additives, carbon footprint

Author: Mikko Aarnio
Supervisor: professor Mikael Rinne
Advisors: M.Sc Tuomo Hänninen
Funding: Financed by Bergwerk Oy

Abstract:

Blasting is the most commonly used method for breaking hard rock in mining and civil engineering. One of the side effects of blasting is that it causes vibrations that can be damaging to structures. The blast induced vibrations are often the limiting factor in the blast design and in order to control vibration levels it is important to understand which parameters have effect on it.

In this thesis the vibrations induced by the initiation of an explosive column from both ends at the same time is studied. When an explosive column is initiated from both ends at the same time a phenomenon called "shock wave collision" occurs where the final pressure caused by the collision of the shock waves is greater than the sum of the pressures caused by the shock waves individually.

This was studied by conducting a blast experiment where the vibrations of bottom, top and dual initiated charge columns were compared to one another. Furthermore, the effect of detonation direction in relation to the measurement direction was studied and the velocity of detonation (VOD) was measured from each type of initiation. For the measurement of the VOD in dual initiation a special T-hole was built to enable measuring the velocities of two approaching detonation fronts simultaneously.

Based on the results of the blast experiment it seemed that shock wave collision does not cause higher Peak Particle Velocities (PPV) than bottom or top initiated holes but no definite conclusion about its effect on vibrations could be drawn. Also, it was concluded that the measured vibrations are higher when measured from the direction where the detonation proceeds compared to the opposite direction. The VOD measurements showed no difference in the behaviour of bottom and top initiated explosive columns. Furthermore, in the dual initiation there was no anomalous behaviour in the detonation fronts of the two colliding detonation waves upon collision.

Author: Ville Nieminen
Supervisor: professor Mikael Rinne
Advisors: Lauri Uotinen, Masoud Torkan
Funding: RAKKA-project

Abstract:

The hydromechanical processes of a single rock fracture are dependent on the properties of that single rock fracture as well as the properties of the rock joints that are connected to it, and their geometry, orientation and the effective stress of the fracture walls. Hydromechanical properties of a single rock fracture are governed by several parameters such as contact area, roughness, tortuosity, aperture, channeling, matedness, sample sizes, normal stress, flow regime, and flow boundary conditions.

Numerical modelling was used to compare the influences of roughness, aperture, water pressure, and different flow boundary conditions on fluid flow in an artificial granite fracture. Comprehensive fluid flow analyses were made to better understand the flow behaviour, including the streamlines, flow velocities and inner water pressure distributions. A simulation model for fluid flow in a single rough fracture was developed with the COMSOL Multiphysics finite element method software. The resulting model was numerically simulated with COMSOL using the Navier-Stokes equations.

In this thesis, 20 fluid flow simulations were performed on fracture model created from photogrammetry of 250 mm × 250 mm artificial tensile fracture. Laminar fluid flow inside the fracture was simulated with fluid flow through x- and y-axis at increasing water pressure level at normal stress conditions of 0 MPa. Simulated water pressures were from 5 kPa to 50 kPa with 5 kPa interval. The numerical model was successfully verified against experimental laboratory work.

The numerical simulation results show that the relationship between water pressure gradient and the flow rate is nonlinear indicating turbulent flow behaviour. The channelling effect of the fluid flow as well as the pressure distribution along the fracture increase with the increase of water pressure. The growth of fluid flow velocity inside the fracture with the increase of water pressure is nonlinear and the growth rate of the fluid flow velocity decreases as the inlet water pressure increases.

Comparison between the numerical modelling results and the experimental solution confirms that the 3D roughness geometry has a crucial role in defining the transmissivity, especially for nonlinear flow. The presented method can be used to characterize to flow properties of fractured rock and in evaluating different methods and implementation of underground rock engineering applications.

Keywords Aperture, rough fracture, fluid flow, flow simulation, COMSOL Multiphysics

Author: Bruk B. Dejenie
Supervisor: professor Leena Korkiala-Tanttu
Advisors: Henry Gustavsson (AALTO), Juha Forsman (Ramboll) and Tapio Vehmas (VTT)
Funding:  Helsinki city, Espoo City, Vantaa City, Finnish transport infrastructure agency (FTA), and Tiina and Antti Herlin Foundation

Abstract:

For decades, various deep mixing methods have been implemented for improving the engineering properties of poor ground condition. The huge amount of material and energy involved in deep mixing opens opportunity for significant reduction in environmental impact. The search for ways to developing environmentally friendly deep mixing practice is getting popular by day.

This research aimed at examining on CO₂ sequestration capacity of Malmi clay stabilized with different binder types in laboratory conditions. Variety of binders produced from recycled material and low CO₂ emission were used in the study. 

Carbonation of stabilized samples were performed in autoclave and carbonation chamber where the effect of carbonation environments on CO₂ absorption assessed. Thermogravimeter analysis (TGA) were used to measure the amount of CO₂ absorbed by carbonated-stabilized samples. The strength development was studied using unconfined compression test while microstructures analysis was investigated using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM).

Carbonation of stabilized soil samples has shown to be a soil stabilization technique which can generate zero carbon dioxide emission. For the four binder types studied, the sequestration capacity of carbonated-stabilized soil was found to range between 2.8% to 4.1% of dry mass or 25 to 37 kg per cubic meter of mixture. The binder type that has the biggest potential to be carbon negative was GTC3. While the use of plant fly ash (UPM Jämsänkoski) with Cement type II as an activator has shown to bring an emission value closer to zero.  Despite its relatively high sequestration capacity of Cement type III the huge emission at production of binder holds the effort to reach zero emission value. Carbonation has shown to reduce 70% of the emission factor during production of cement type III. The compressive strength (UCS) of carbonated soils were found to range between 50 to 175 kPa, which is lower by 2 to 3 times than reference sample strength. Despite the need for further study, missing of sample confinement during the curing period was supposed to be the reason for the lower compression strength of carbonated sample. Dense and less discontinuous structure, agglomeration around clay particle and spindle-like structures were observed on SEM analysis of both carbonated and non-carbonated stabilized clay.

Key words: CO₂ sequestration, sustainable deep mixing, Stabilized clay, Recycled binder, Thermogravimeter

Author: Nina Tanskanen
Supervisor: professor Mikael Rinne
Advisors: DI Max Pihlström
Funding:  Sitowise Oy

Abstract:

The construction field causes 1.5 million tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions every year in Finland. To stop global warming every field of business must act. The goal of this thesis was to find ways for a designer of rock structures to affect the carbon footprint in a rock construction project. The topic was studied with a literature review and a case study. The biggest greenhouse gases emerged from rock excavation and rock reinforcement. The carbon footprint of rock reinforcement was discovered to be substantially higher than the carbon footprint of rock excavation when the rock was of poor quality. This thesis focuses mostly on rock reinforcement since designer’s possibilities to affect carbon footprint was found to be at its most in the carbon footprint of rock reinforcement.

The case study examined the greenhouse gas emissions of rock reinforcement in one tunnel in the Espoo–Salo direct rail line based on the general plan. The emissions were calculated based on different rock reinforcement plans and material selections. The emissions of sprayed concrete were significant. By adding more rock bolts, the amount of sprayed concrete could be reduced. Increasing the number of bolts and reducing sprayed concrete led to a reduction of 20–54 % of greenhouse gas emissions. The overall emissions of the rock construction phase of the example tunnel were reduced by 27 % via optimizing the rock reinforcement plan according to emissions. More elaborate design and avoiding excessive rock reinforcement by rock designers can reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Author: Mikael Dahlström
Supervisor: professor Mikael Rinne
Advisors:
Funding:

Abstract

Author: Taavi-Waltteri Valjakka
Supervisor: Professor Leena Korkiala-Tanttu
Advisors: DI Juha Forsman & TkT Inka Reijonen
Funding:

Abstract:

Author: Angela Quintero Martinez
Supervisor: Professor Wojciech Sołowski
Advisors: Mauri Kulman, Lic. Sc. (Tech.)
Funding: ��ä���ä�����������ٴ�

Abstract:

Traditionally, pseudo-static analyses have been used to evaluate the influence of dynamic forces on structures. In this approximation, a static force is amplified by a dynamic factor. Then it is assumed that the effects on the structure due to a pseudo-static load are equivalent to the real effect of a dynamic force. However, pseudo-static approximation may constitute an oversimplification of dynamic problems and result in overdesigning. With the new developments in the numerical methods field, we could more accurately analyse the impact of dynamic loadings using advanced computational tools such as FEM models. In this work, using FEM models, a comparison between pseudo-static and dynamic analysis was done to evaluate the influence of railway traffic on nearby structures.

A total of 40 simulations were run corresponding to 10 modelling cases (6 pseudo-static, 4 dynamic) and 4 cross-sections (without structures, with slabs under railway line and retaining walls).

The results showed that the pseudo-static approach might be appropriate to assess the influence of railway traffic on nearby structures, with some limitations regarding the estimation of displacements. In other words, it may not be necessary to do a dynamic model to evaluate the effects of traffic loadings on structures.

Author: Saranya Ravichandren
Supervisor: Professor Augusto Cannone Falchetto
Advisors: Di Wang
Funding: Morebit Project

Abstract: 
This thesis aims to analyze the rheological and chemical characteristics of a wide range of bitumens as part of  the Morebit Project. Before 2020, Finland benefited from a stable bitumen supply with consistently similar  product properties. After 2020, the Finnish market has been open to many bitumen suppliers. With the increase in the diversity of materials, the industry faces new challenges in identifying the properties of bitumen from various sources. Finland has low temperatures during wintertime and relatively high temperature during summertime, exposing the road pavements to a large operating temperature regime. Asphalt behaves differently with respect to temperature; therefore, it is essential to analyze the properties of the bitumen as this provides an
indication of their performance when used to prepare asphalt mixtures.

Seven bitumen supply companies joined the Morebit project along with the Finnish Transport Agency to evaluate the performance of the bitumen currently coming to Finland for paving applications. This thesis has analyzed 16 samples with various grades. Bitumens have been tested with the Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR), including temperature frequency sweep tests, Multiple Stress Creep Recovery (MSCR), and Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The samples have been used in this analysis as fresh and short-term aged to simulate the aging conditions during the mixing and transportation of the bitumen. A series of parameters were derived from the master curve, MSCR, and FTIR to identify the properties of the bitumen. Promising parameters were identified to discriminate the same penetration-graded bitumen from different suppliers. This work represents the first step in the attempt to develop an alternative experimental method to rapidly evaluate bituminous binders.

Author: Tariq Ullah
Supervisor: Professor Augusto Cannone Falchetto
Advisors:Sebastian Bussman (West Coast Road Masters, Finland), Henry Gustavsson (Aalto University)
Funding:  Fingrid

Abstract:

This study presents the feasibility of MLS system to accurately identify changes in the condition of low-volume roads that are not designed for special heavy loads. The observation of changes in condition was based on monitoring settlement of the road surface. Two MLS systems, Riegl VMX-2HA and Trimble MX9, were used to detect settlement caused by heavy loading. For each MLS system, two-point clouds were produced, one before and one after loading.
The data was analyzed visually as well as analytically. The visual analysis made it possible to visualize long enough sections of the road in longitudinal direction. The settlement was tire wide and occurred mostly on the right wheel path due to its proximity to the right edge of the embankment. This occurred as a result of the loaded truck using the right side of the road, leaving the left side of the road unaffected. Moreover, the roads are usually more compacted in the center whereas closer to the edges the embankment tends to be less stable. Five locations were picked where the settlement in the road was clearer to be identified.
Analytical analysis of the changes that happened as a result of heavy loading was performed. The goal of this investigation was to determine the magnitude of the vertical displacement and assess the MLS systems' accuracy. In all five sections, the right wheel had the highest settlement. In most cases, both MLS systems detected the right wheel path at the same place with approximately the
same magnitudes of settlement. For each segment, the settlement on the right wheel path was measured. It was discovered that the Trimble MX9 provides slightly higher settlement values than the Riegl VMX-2HA. However, both MLS systems gave the maximum settlement on the right wheel path in the same section which was 23.7 mm by Riegl VMX-2HA and 26.2 by Trimble MX9. According to calculations, there is an average difference of 2.7 mm between the two MLS systems' settlement measurements on the right wheel path for all the sections. Accuracy is the most reliable and conclusive measure of data quality. Therefore, a 1.5 m accuracy evaluation window that was made on the left side of the road and put 20 cm farther away from the left wheel of the vehicle to evaluate the accuracy of both MLS systems. This side of the road was not affected by the loaded vehicle; hence no vertical displacement was expected on this side of the road. However, the results from both MLS systems on this location showed some amount of vertical displacement. Therefore, three primary error sources that contributed to the vertical displacement in this location were identified. Such as alignment error that resulted from the in correct alignment of point clouds with respect to one another. The average vertical displacement values received from the accuracy assessment window were used to evaluate the magnitude of the point clouds alignment error. The average values in this region of the road varies for each section, and it ranges from -0.01 mm to -4.168 mm for Riegl VMX-2HA and -0.354 mm to -5.518 mm for Trimble MX9.

The internal error of the system indicated in the system specifications is the second error source. The accuracy assessment window's maximum and minimum values were taken to represent the internal inaccuracy of the MLS systems. The average internal error resulting from the Riegl VMX-2HA was 4.2 mm, whereas the average internal error resulting from the Trimble MX9 was 3.1 mm. The last error source was identified as originating from unbound materials that were moving around the tires of the scanning vehicle as it was driving. The laser beam detects those particles and assign the position to each individual point. The rest of the roughness in the result was due to this error. This error could be fixed by accurately removing the noise by using noise filters and by
averaging procedure which filter away the local displacement.

Author: Hannu Saarentaus
Supervisor: professor Leena Korkiala-Tanttu
Advisors: Silke Savikurki and Tiina-Liisa Toivanen (Espoo)
Funding: Espoon kaupungin geotekniikkayksikkö

Abstract:

The aim of this thesis is to examine undrained shear strength in fine grain soil between two different field vane testing equipment. The research is funded by city of Espoo and its geotechnical unit. Espoo has had Nilcon type mechanical field vane test device for a long time and the other device acquired in spring of 2020 is manufactured by Geomachine. It is partly automated, electrically working and its model name is GM4W. Working with the newer device has been found more time consuming. The aim of this study is to investigate how the results from different apparatus can be compared. In addition, working time with the newer device is studied and effects on measured shear strength is investigated whether the process is made faster. Field vane testings were performed in four different locations in Espoo between October and December of 2020. Testing sites were Finnoonpuro, Kalajärvi, Monikonaukea and Tapiola sports park. Factors affecting the choice of investigation areas were depth and extent of the clay layer and origin of the area.

From two to three investigation pairs were conducted in each area with both equipment. A total of 216 results for undrained shear strength were obtained from 21 different test holes. Previously gathered investigation data from city of Espoo’s database were used in two investigations. In addition to the field vane testing, undisturbed soil samples were also taken from the sites and total of 70 samples were investigated in laboratory. Soil type based on grain size distribution, water content, porosity, unit weight and humus content were determined. Fall cone tests to determinate shear strength were also performed to those samples which it was possible.

It was observed that the results with Nilcon device were higher in most cases compared to GM4W. The difference between undrained shear strengths were 0,1…23,9 kPa. Highest differences in shear strength might be explained by heterogeneous feature of soil, but some differences were also observed in performing the investigations. With Nilcon it is not possible to fully follow the instructions defined to execute field vane testing. One of the major factors is rotation rate of the vane. It is difficult to keep constant and it easily gets higher than instructed. Also, with existing Nilcon setup the use of protective casing around the rods to prevents friction from the soil is not possible.

As a testing equipment the GM4W was found more reliable because the measurements could be repeated more reliably and the guidelines for field vane testing could be followed. After initial settings the test results are already in electronic form at GM4W and easy to use. They don’t need interpretation after measurement like the results when using Nilcon.

Author: Jonas Heinzler
Supervisor: Prof. Mikael Rinne
Advisor: Dr. Martin Held and Evan Hagenlock (Austin Powders)

Author: Heidi Kaukinen
Supervisor: Jussi Leveinen
Advisor: Ari Huomo
Funding:  ��ä���ä�����������ٴ�

Abstact

Project part calculation is a calculation method which is used in the early phases of infrastructure projects. This calculation method tries to predict the cost estimates of infrastructure projects, while the raw data is insufficient and uncertain. Project part calculation can be described as a tool to set cost target and to manage the expenses. Project part calculation method models the costs according to extent, circumstances and target quality level of infrastructure projects.

This research answers which needs project part calculation meets, what raw data can be used in project part calculation and can infra modelling be used in project part calculation. This research approaches part calculation in transport infrastructure projects’ point of view, more accurately road and rail projects’ point of view. However, road projects’ point of view is highlighted more.

This research used interviews as the research method. Various skilled experts in the infrastructure field were interviewed. It is important to identity all the raw data nevertheless raw data is insufficient and uncertain. Dividing infrastructure projects into parts should be done systematically and according the standards. It is important to highlight solutions, which are the most lucrative in the end.

Author: Fanny Strandström
Supervisor: Mikael Rinne
Advisor: Miika Kalliokari
Collaborative partner: Kalliosuunnittelu Rockplan Oy ltd

Abstract
Sealing the tunnels against water inflow is an important step in tunnel construction projects. Finland and Sweden have similar geologies, that is why it is interesting to observe that the grouting design approaches differ from each other significantly. This thesis is a comparative study where the differences in grouting design and execution of grouting in Finland and Sweden are mapped. A case study is also conducted in this thesis.  

In Finnish civil projects the grouting design is based on experiences and empirical knowledge, while in Sweden, a much more theoretical approach is applied when drafting the grouting design. The reasons behind these differences are discussed throughout the thesis. The view in Finland is that the geology is difficult to precisely predict as the rock’s properties measured in the pre-investigation phase are point specific. For this reason, a design that can be self-adjusting and adapted to the actual site conditions is important. This is obtained by  conducting measurements at probe-holes and grouting holes prior to the actual grouting activity and based on the results of the on-site measurements, the design parameters are updated and evaluated by the designer. In Sweden, the view is that the best grouting results are obtained by adapting analytical equations to the design. The expected apertures are calculated analytically based on the measured transmissivities and conductivities in the pre-investigation phase. Then, the penetration lengths and the necessary grouting times are calculated with the equations presented in chapter 3. The different design approaches lead to very different grouting parameters in regards of both pressure and pumped volumes.

In the case study the extensions of the capitol city subway lines in Finland and Sweden are compared and the grouting of the nuclear repositories’ test tunnels in ONKALO, Posiva and the TASS tunnel in Äspö are compared.  

The differences in the grouting design and execution of the grouting design in the West metro subway extension in Finland and Blue Line project in Sweden were significant. In the West metro project higher pressures were used and the maximum allowed grouting volumes were up to 26 times larger compared to the Blue line project. It was also interesting to see that more pre-investigations were done in the West metro project compared to the Blue line project, even though the Blue line project used the theoretical approach in the grouting design.  

The repositories differences in grouting design were minor. In Finland freshwater grouting is conducted prior to the actual grouting to clean the fractures while in Sweden, it is unknown if this additional step is being taken.

Keywords: Grouting, Länsimetro, West metro, Blue line, Repository, Posiva, SKB, Tunnelling, Hydrogeology  

Author: Mia Roslund
Supervisor: Mikael Rinne
Advisor: Jari Heikkilä

Abstract

Underground wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) are becoming more popular especially in urban environments.  Going underground does not only resolve the need for space but also removes the harmful side-effects of them  for the neighbors by making them out of sight. In countries such as Finland where the bedrock level is high  building underground usually means they are excavated into rock. These have been built for several decades, but not widely studied.  The objective of this study was to make the future design easier, more efficient, and more  straightforward. This objective was achieved by finding which are the boundaries for the design and what are the  effects of these boundaries on the design process. This was done by literature research and case studies.

Based on the literature it was found that functional boundaries for design of an underground WWTP are water state and level in receiving water course, wastewater quality and quantity. The water state in receiving water  course together with the wastewater quality and quantity define the treatment goal. The geotechnical boundaries for a design found in literature are required rock pillar and roof thickness, predicted weakness zones, most critical plant geometries, geological surveys, laboratory results, and rock mechanical simulations. Boundaries not specified for either but having influences on both are influent and effluent tunnel alignments and above ground  circumstances.

The boundaries found in the literature were studied in two case studies, Blominmäki and Sulkavuori WWTP design projects in Finland. The studied cases confirmed that the listed functional and geotechnical boundaries applied in the design of these WWTPs. These boundaries for design were the ones that either gave out important information or once found were variables that are unable to be changed. In their own way each of these
boundaries gave the design a direction and helped to find what is inevitable and needs to find a solution for.

Keywords: Underground wastewater treatment plant, rock design, WWTP design, design boundaries

Author: Markus Prittinen
Supervisor: Jussi Leveinen
Advisor: Dr Mateusz Janiszewski
Funding: none

Abstract

It is important to have good data for making safe tunnel designs. An understanding of the prevailing discontinuities is crucial to evaluate the quality of the rock mass and reinforcement needs. Photogrammetry using Structure-from-Motion is a 3D-scanning technique from which one can make 3D representations of real-life objects using 2D-photos. The 3D-models allows for more automated and faster discontinuities mapping than traditional compass methods. The research location is the Underground Research Laboratory of Aalto University (URLA), which is a tunnel complex located in underneath Otaniemi campus at Aalto University in Espoo Southern Finland.

The research questions are: What are the challenges in tunnel photogrammetry? What are the most efficient methods in capturing tunnel environments? Are 360- and action cameras a viable alternative to more traditional photogrammetry methods using DSLR cameras? Do the methods used produce 3D-models good enough for identifying rock futures and for doing measurements and discontinuity mapping?
In this thesis different cameras are compared for Structure-from-Motion photogrammetry, a DSLR camera, a 360-camera, and a GoPro rig that was developed during the research. The GoPro rig combines four GoPro action cameras using a plastic frame and 3D-printed parts and can be used both handheld and on a tripod. An experiment is done using constraints for how close to an unsupported walls work can be done, to simulate a tunnel under construction. The accuracy, speed and resolution of each method is measured. The geometric accuracy is compared with measurements from a laser measurement tool. Traditional compass measurements of discontinuity sets are compared with measurements from 3D-models gathered, including semi-automated measurements of discontinuities in Discontinuity Set Extractor. The results show that out of the methods compared the DSLR method is most accurate and the 360-camera least accurate, yet each method produces a point cloud accurate enough for automatic discontinuity set measurements. Out of the methods tested the GoPro rig was proven to be both the fastest and cheapest method in acquiring images for photogrammetry.

Author: Ying-Ching Lin
Supervisor:  Solowski Wojciech   
Advisors: LauriSavolainen(Ramboll Finland Oy) and Taavi Dettenborn  (Ramboll Finland Oy)
Funding: Foundation for Aalto university science and technology

Abstract: 

Railway embankment design plays an important role in ensuring comfort, safety and timely operation of railways, which are the three greatest concerns for railway passengers and operators. When adopting a material in railway embankments, which is Leca LWA in this thesis, it is necessary to evaluate it from geotechnical design perspectives.

To demonstrate the use of Leca LWA in railway structures, this thesis aimed to determine the suitable cover and the optimal location for Leca LWA in railway embankments, as well as to evaluate the effect of high cycle train loads on Leca LWA. These were done by analyzing three key aspects in railway geotechnical design including bearing capacity, embankment stability and the displacement induced by cyclic loading. Numerous combinations of different thicknesses of railway substructure layers with multiple subgrade options were adopted for these analyses to serve the purpose of determining the most advantageous depth and location for Leca LWA.

The bearing capacity was verified by using the Odemark method. The embankment stability of railway embankments was computed by using Plaxis. The displacement induced by cyclic loading was analyzed by using Plaxis SSC model, which accumulated the plastic strain over time. The analysis results were further used to validate the HCA model established by Wichtmann et al., (2005). This HCA model was used to replicate the result of cyclic compression tests on Leca LWA, which the plastic strain was accumulated due to high cycle loads. Consequently, this thesis achieved to estimate the magnitude of plastic displacements under high cycle train loads by correlating the time provided by Plaxis simulations and the number of cycles given by the HCA model.

This thesis could benefit the designers who are interested in using Leca LWA as a railway embankmentmaterial. Additionally, this thesis brought the opportunity of using the HCA model and Plaxis SSC model to simulate the accumulated plastic strain due to high cycle train loads. 

Author: Jyri Liukko
Supervisor: Mikael Rinne
Thesis advisor: Visa Myllymäki

Abstract:

The aim of this master’s thesis was to define the carbon footprint of a rock construction
project, when traditional drill & blast -method is being used.

What is the amount of emissions released into the atmosphere? One of the most important elements in the thesis was to define the quantity of greenhouse gas emissions produced in a certain sector of rock construction project, would the production mechanism be altered and are there known methods that could be applied to minimize these emissions.

What are the mechanisms responsible for the majority of emissions? In the thesis the mechanisms were defined, and a model of the emissions was built to be applied in the process of emission calculations during the project development and contract calculations. The final product of the emission model is a One Click LCA summary,  which generates an estimate of the total emissions of the project.

What are the characteristics of the project affecting the quantity of the emissions and how? The research was done with a focus on underground spaces excavated for vehicle parking purposes and the results gained were used in a comparison with parking garages with concrete framework constructed aboveground.

The result of the study was founded on standardized method of life cycle assessment and lead to the conclusion that the excavation of a fictive tunnel would release an allocated emission of 18 kg CO2-eq/m3. Calculation was done by hand by using values acquired from environmental product declarations (EPD). Quantities used were then exported to web-based One Click LCA tool for reliability evaluation, which lead to the identical conclusion regarding the amount of emissions. Finally, post calculation data and quantities from an underground parking cavern and aboveground parking garage were analyzed and the amount of emissions from both cases was acquired. Result of the comparison made stated that allocated emissions released from underground parking cavern are slightly higher than from aboveground parking facility with corresponding capacity when the excavation phase and the construction phase are compared. The amount of emissions released during the complete life cycle of both cases will offer the solution to which of the parking systems is absolutely releasing less emissions.

Keywords rock construction, rock engineering, carbon footprint, underground blasting, emissions, sustainability in rock engineering

Author: Iikka Kronqvist
Supervisor: Leena Korkiala-Tanttu
Advisor: Zhongsen Li
Funding: Sitowise Oy ja Helsingin kaupunki

Short abstract:

Tässä työssä tutkittiin Helsingin Malmin lentokenttäalueelta otetuista häiriintymättömistä ja stabiloiduista savinäytteistä Bender element -mittausmenetelmällä määritettyä pienten muodonmuutosten leikkausmoduulia. Työssä selvitettiin eri sideaineiden vaikutusta pienten muodonmuutosten leikkausmoduuliin sekä häiriintymättömien savinäytteiden säilömisen vaikutusta. Lisäksi työssä olennaisena osana oli saatujen mittaustulosten pohjalta kehittää ja parantaa Bender element -mittausjärjestelyjä luotettavampien tulosten saamiseksi.

Author: Vilma Pakkastie
Supervisor: Leena Korkiala-Tanttu
Advisor: Antti Perälä (SSAB), Aino Sihvola (Sitowise)
Funding:

Short abstract:

The thesis is based on a new type RDW drill pile wall by SSAB, which has special profile and a lock profile welded to drill piles.

In the thesis the new RDW drill pile wall is presented, and I have analysed the properties of the RDW wall with analytical calculations as well as with results from laboratory tests for the RDW- lock profile (tensile strength tests). The experimental part also includes constructor interview (about installation of the wall on site) and lifting the RDW-wall to see, if the drill piles are still reusable.

Author: Elis Kivi
Supervisor: Leena Korkiala-Tanttu
Advisor:Mirva Koskinen (City of Helsinki) ja Juha Forsman (Ramboll Finland)
Funding: Finnish Geotechnical Society

Abstract:

In this thesis, usage rates in Finland as well as carbon footprint in typical applications were studied for different ground improvement methods. Usage rates were determined through a literature review, interviews and an online survey. With regard to less popular ground improvement methods, specific projects that made use of them were determined. Carbon footprints were estimated for the construction phase, ie estimation included emissions from the manufacturing of products and materials, transportation and work activities. The estimation did not take into account emissions from maintenance or emissions from the decommissioning phases. Emission calculation design solutions were based on estimated data.

The most popular ground improvement methods in Finland that were included in this thesis were column stabilization, lightening with expanded clay aggregate and foam glass crush, preloading and overloading with surcharge and mass stabilization. In addition to the above, while excluded from this thesis, pile slabs and mass exchange are also popular. The usage rates for column stabilization and mass stabilization are reliably available on an annual basis, but other methods have no recorded usage rates. Binder mixture has a large effect on the total carbon emissions for column stabilization and mass stabilization. At present, foam glass crush structure has lower carbon emissions than corresponding expanded clay aggregate structure. Emissions for column stabilization, mass stabilization and lightening with expanded clay aggregate and foam glass are heavily influenced by used products and materials. Other methods have more uniform division of emissions between products and materials, transportation and work itself. Ground improvement methods for frictional soil types typically have lower emissions than methods for cohesive soil types. The carbon footprint of frictional soil improvement methods is difficult to assess at the beginning of a project before the machine details and transport distances are known, as they have big effect on the final emissions.

Author: Kasper Holopainen
Supervisor: Leena Korkiala-Tanttu
Advisor:
Funding:

Author: Juha Kivivuori
Supervisor: Leena Korkiala-Tanttu
Advisor:Esko Kääriäinen (Sitowise)  and Sami Ylönen (FinMeas)
Funding:

Abstract:

 (In Finnish): 

Työssä tutkittiin geoteknistä monitorointia korkeassa rakentamisessa. Aluksi selvitettiin monitoroinnin asemaa ja tarpeellisuutta korkeassa rakentamisessa. Tämän jälkeen tutkittiin eri mittausmenetelmiä geoteknisessä monitoroinnissa kiinnittäen erityisesti huomiota uusin ja vaihtoehtoisiin mittausmenetelmiin. Työssä käsiteltiin monitoroinnin suunnitteluprosessia, selvitettiin paalujen ja pohjalaatan toiminnan monitorointiin soveltuvat mittausmenetelmät, pohdittiin eri mittausmenetelmien soveltamista yksittäisiin paaluihin sekä koko korkean rakennuksen perustuksiin. Lisäksi käsiteltiin monitorointitulosten työstämistä. Työssä simuloitiin monitorointitulokset yhden paalun osalta käyttäen apuna Plaxis 3D FEM-ohjelma. Simuloiduista monitorointituloksista laskettiin analyyttisesti paalun rasitukset, joita verrattiin FEM-ohjelman tuloksiin.